基于激励机制的装备采办风险总量控制

针对装备采办中的风险总量控制,提出一种激励方式来提高承包商的积极性。在单目标风险控制模型的基础上,建立了多目标风险控制模型,推导出了激励机制下风险控制的最优合同公式。对激励机制中存在的两类错误进行了理论分析和实例验证,得出了两类错误对收益的影响,并在成本控制中得到了应用,有效地提高了装备采办的质量和效率,为军方决策者在装备采办中提供了合理的参考依据。     

军品采购合同定价中的激励与风险

文章运用激励理论分析了军品采购中如何通过制订激励合同督促承包商尽量降低总研制成本的问题,并探讨了承包商的风险态度、控制成本的代价及成本不确定性等对激励强度的影响,提出了成本控制努力水平的概念,计算了军方的最终期望支付以及由于努力水平不可观测即信息不对称导致的总代理成本,分析了激励与风险的平衡。为军品订货合同定价提供了参考。     

管好合同 规避风险

建设工程施工合同是业主与施工单位以工程施工为目的,明确相互权利与义务关系的协议。施工单位应按合同规定完成业主交给的建筑安装工程任务,业主应按合同规定提供必要条件并支付工程价款。合同是否公正、可行,业主能否履约以及项目经理部对合同管理的有效性,都会对项目管理本身及项目的经济效益产生影响。如何利用有效的合同管理规避风险,降低施工成本,提高项目的经济效益,已成为施工企业管理工作的重中之重。     

装备采购线性合同优化研究

高额装备费支出使对招投标合同优化问题备受国防经济学界关注,对装备采办过程中招投标线性合同的优化进行了研究。采用招投标模型与委托-代理模型分析相结合的方法,先从道德风险与风险分担2个方面分析装备采购合同的优化问题,然后引入竞争效应,分析风险分担的问题。即使在双方为风险中性不需要风险分担时,DoD仍然需要在最初的投标竞争与中标后承包商降低成本行为之间进行权衡。一般的投标中,应使最终支付基于实际成本和投标值2个因素,并考虑最终支付基于道德风险损失。研究的基本结论是:固定价格合同应尽可能少地使用;若存在2个以上的投标人,成本加价合同也应禁止使用;在使用激励合同时,应慎重选择合同系数,提出了计算优化线性激励合同系数的方法。     

工程索赔的难点和对策

“索赔”,从字面意思理解,就是索取赔偿。它既包含承包商对业主提出的索赔,也包含业主对承包商提出的反索赔。从承包商角度来说索赔就是承包商由于非自身原因发生合同规定之外的额外工作或损失所要求进行的费用和时间的补偿,换句话说,凡超出原合同规定的行为给承包商带来的损失,无论是时间上的还是经济上的,只要承包商认为不能从原合同规定中获得支付的额外开支,应该得到经济和时间补偿的,均有权向业主提出索赔。因此,索赔是一种正当的权利要求,是应该争取得到的合理偿的权利要求,是应该争取得到的合理偿付,不是无理争利。施工…     

多层次模糊综合评价方法在武器装备承包商绩效评价中的应用研究

现代合同理论表明,由于武器装备研制、生产的复杂性、长期性、系统性以及武器装备合同甲乙双方信息的严重不对称性,决定了武器装备合同的不完全性,同时,武器装备研制生产中存在的生产线专用性、资金设备投入的专向性以及特殊要求的平战转换能力和保密性,决定了武器装备采办市场竞争的有限性。军工体系内实际存在的垄断形势,竞争机制并不能充分发挥市场对资源配置的基础作用,在有限竞争市场条件下,对武器装备承包商绩效进行长期有效的评价,一是能在有限范围内充分保证承包商竞标、评优、选择的公平、公开、公正;二是通过对承包商绩效进行适度…     

论装备采办合同管理

加强装备采办合同管理应科学设置合同管理机构,优选合同承包商,合理确定合同价格,全程监控合同履行,实现合同管理信息化,完善合同管理法规,加强合同管理人才队伍建设。     

承包商以往业绩评估机制 美军有效利用国防资源的有力措施

美军历来重视承包商对所有采办活动的重要影响，因此在承包商的选择过程中非常谨慎。美军近年来一直坚持对参与投标的承包商进行以往业绩评估（Contractor Past Performance Evaluation），并将其作为衡量承包商可靠性的重要指标之一．在提高装备质量、降低采办风险等方面取得了显著的成效。     

国际工程承包中的风险管理

工程承包是一项充满风险的事业,特别是国际工程承包则风险更大。在市场经济的工程承包市场中,承包商以投标报价的形式争取中标,拿到项目的过程日益激烈。承包商为了图生存、求发展,不得不加强竞争,甚至冒险搏击。其面临的风险也就大大增加了。     

军情动态

美航空航天局签订 “轨道空间飞机”研制合同 美航空航天局(NASA)4月4日宣布,它已授予3家承包商各一项价值4500万美元的合同,以研制为国际空间站航天员救援和运输的“轨道空间飞机”(OSP)。这3家竞标承包商是:洛克希德·马丁公司,波音公司,以及轨道     

Supply contracts in manufacturer‐retailer interactions with manufacturer‐quality and retailer effort‐induced demand

We consider a decentralized distribution channel where demand depends on the manufacturer‐chosen quality of the product and the selling effort chosen by the retailer. The cost of selling effort is private information for the retailer. We consider three different types of supply contracts in this article: price‐only contract where the manufacturer sets a wholesale price; fixed‐fee contract where manufacturer sells at marginal cost but charges a fixed (transfer) fee; and, general franchise contract where manufacturer sets a wholesale price and charges a fixed fee as well. The fixed‐fee and general franchise contracts are referred to as two‐part tariff contracts. For each contract type, we study different contract forms including individual, menu, and pooling contracts. In the analysis of the different types and forms of contracts, we show that the price only contract is dominated by the general franchise menu contract. However, the manufacturer may prefer to offer the fixed‐fee individual contract as compared to the general franchise contract when the retailer's reservation utility and degree of information asymmetry in costs are high. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Naval Research Logistics, 2008     

On the effectiveness of returns policies in the price‐dependent newsvendor model

We study in this paper the price‐dependent (PD) newsvendor model in which a manufacturer sells a product to an independent retailer facing uncertain demand and the retail price is endogenously determined by the retailer. We prove that for a zero salvage value and some expected demand functions, in equilibrium, the manufacturer may elect not to introduce buybacks. On the other hand, if buybacks are introduced in equilibrium, their introduction has an insignificant effect on channel efficiency improvement, but, by contrast, may significantly shift profits from the retailer to the manufacturer. We further demonstrate that the introduction of buybacks increases the wholesale price, retail price, and inventory level, as compared to the wholesale price‐only contract, and that the corresponding vertically integrated firm offers the lowest retail price and highest inventory level. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Naval Research Logistics, 2005.     

Vertically restrictive pricing in supply chains with price‐dependent demand

We examine the behavior of a manufacturer and a retailer in a decentralized supply chain under price‐dependent, stochastic demand. We model a retail fixed markup (RFM) policy, which can arise as a form of vertically restrictive pricing in a supply chain, and we examine its effect on supply chain performance. We prove the existence of the optimal pricing and replenishment policies when demand has a linear additive form and the distribution of the uncertainty component has a nondecreasing failure rate. We numerically compare the relative performance of RFM to a price‐only contract and we find that RFM results in greater profit for the supply chain than the price‐only contract in a variety of scenarios. We find that RFM can lead to Pareto‐improving solutions where both the supplier and the retailer earn more profit than under a price‐only contract. Finally, we compare RFM to a buyback contract and explore the implications of allowing the fixed markup parameter to be endogenous to the model. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Naval Research Logistics, 2006.     

Resale price maintenance contracts with retailer sales effort: Effect of flexibility and competition

In Resale Price Maintenance (RPM) contracts, the manufacturer specifies the resale price that retailers must charge to consumers. We study the role of using a RPM contract in a market where demand is influenced by retailer sales effort. First, it is well known that RPM alone does not provide incentive for the retailer to use adequate sales effort and some form of quantity fixing may be needed to achieve channel coordination. However, when the market potential of the product is uncertain, RPM with quantity fixing is a rigid contract form. We propose and study a variety of RPM contracts with quantity fixing that offer different forms of flexibility including pricing flexibility and quantity flexibility. Second, we address a long‐time debate in both academia and practice on whether RPM is anti‐competitive in a market when two retailers compete on both price and sales effort. We show that depending on the relative intensity of price competition and sales effort competition, RPM may lead to higher or lower retail prices compared to a two‐part tariff contract, which specifies a wholesale price and a fixed fee. Further, the impact of RPM on price competition and sales effort competition is always opposite to each other. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Naval Research Logistics, 2006     

Flexible supply contracts for short life‐cycle goods: The buyer's perspective

In this paper we analyze a two‐period supply contract which allows for order adjustment by the buyer. The buyer is required to place orders for two periods. After observing initial demand, the buyer is then allowed to adjust the second order, paying a per unit order adjustment penalty. We describe the optimal behavior of the buyer under such a contract, both in determining the initial order quantities and in subsequently adjusting the order. We compare the solution to a contract where no adjustment is allowed and to the case where adjustment is allowed without penalty. We demonstrate that flexible contracts can reduce the potentially negative effect of correlation of demand between two periods. Further, we investigate how the duration of the first period vis‐à‐vis the second period affects the profitability of the buyer as a function of the degree of correlation. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Naval Research Logistics, 49: 25–45, 2002; DOI 10.1002/nav.10002     

Offset Contracts as an Insurance Device in Building the National Security

A dynamic multi-stage decision-theoretic approach is introduced to establish the optimal offset and its incidence, the contract price arising from bargaining, and the scale of the acquisition. A new rationale is suggested for offsets in terms of their role as an insurance devise. Results are derived for the pricing of delivery contracts subject to offset claims and their national security implications. It is shown that the national security is strictly convex in the offset transaction. As to the incidence of the offset, the offset claim is shown to be capitalised in the delivery price. The bargaining price is shown to depend on the value of the product to be delivered for the national security, the relative negotiation power of the contracting partners and the social cost of public funds. The analysis highlights the expectation effects of offsets on the bargaining price and the scale of delivery. The results aid in explaining why offsets are widely used in procurement contracts for defence materiel. As they contribute to the national security, they should be allowed to survive and not be denied under competition laws.     

单一来源装备采办下定价策略的博弈分析

单一来源装备采办下,由于供应商在装备的定价与装备的升级改造上都存在 相对的比较优势,军方引入渐进式采办来改变自身的不利地位 应用博弈论的观点来对单 一来源装备采办下军方与供应商定价问题进行比较,实现了对单一来源装备采办与竞争策 略下各自收益分析,并用不定次重复博弈对渐进式采办进行了定量分析,对在实际采办过程 中如何实现激励合同和防止腐败问题也进行了理论上的论述。     

Dynamic coordination of production planning and sales admission control in the presence of a spot market

We consider the decision‐making problem of dynamically scheduling the production of a single make‐to stock (MTS) product in connection with the product's concurrent sales in a spot market and a long‐term supply channel. The spot market is run by a business to business (B2B) online exchange, whereas the long‐term channel is established by a structured contract. The product's price in the spot market is exogenous, evolves as a continuous time Markov chain, and affects demand, which arrives sequentially as a Markov‐modulated Poisson process (MMPP). The manufacturer is obliged to fulfill demand in the long‐term channel, but is able to rein in sales in the spot market. This is a significant strategic decision for a manufacturer in entering a favorable contract. The profitability of the contract must be evaluated by optimal performance. The current problem, therefore, arises as a prerequisite to exploring contracting strategies. We reveal that the optimal strategy of coordinating production and sales is structured by the spot price dependent on the base stock and sell‐down thresholds. Moreover, we can exploit the structural properties of the optimal strategy to conceive an efficient algorithm. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Naval Research Logistics, 2010     

Trade credit contract in the presence of retailer investment opportunity

This paper presents a model for designing a trade credit contract between a supplier and a retailer that would coordinate a supply chain in the presence of investment opportunity for the retailer. Specifically, we study a newsvendor model where the supplier offers a trade credit contract to the retailer who, by delaying the payment, can invest the accounts payable amount and earn returns. We find that when the channel partners have symmetric information about the retailer's investment return, a conditionally concessional trade credit (CTC) contract, which includes a wholesale price, an interest‐free period, and a minimum order requirement, can achieve channel coordination. We then extend the model to the information asymmetry setting in which the retailer's investment return is unobservable by the supplier. We show that, although the CTC contract cannot achieve the coordination in this setting, it can effectively improve channel efficiency as well as profitability for individual partners.     

Supplier‐buyer contracting: Asymmetric cost information and cutoff level policy for buyer participation

We consider the problem of designing a contract to maximize the supplier's profit in a one‐supplier–one‐buyer relationship for a short‐life‐cycle product. Demand for the finished product is stochastic and price‐sensitive, and only its probability distribution is known when the supply contract is written. When the supplier has complete information on the marginal cost of the buyer, we show that several simple contracts can induce the buyer to choose order quantity that attains the single firm profit maximizing solution, resulting in the maximum possible profit for the supplier. When the marginal cost of the buyer is private information, we show that it is no longer possible to achieve the single firm solution. In this case, the optimal order quantity is always smaller while the optimal sale price of the finished product is higher than the single firm solution. The supplier's profit is lowered while that of the buyer is improved. Moreover, a buyer who has a lower marginal cost will extract more profit from the supplier. Under the optimal contract, the supplier employs a cutoff level policy on the buyer's marginal cost to determine whether the buyer should be induced to sign the contract. We characterize the optimal cutoff level and show how it depends on the parameters of the problem. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Naval Research Logistics 48: 41–64, 2001